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soundscape ecology
Soundscape ecology is the study of sound within a landscape or seascape and its effect on organisms. Sounds may be generated by organisms (biophony), by the physical environment (geophony), or by humans (anthropophony). Soundscape ecologists seek to understand how these different sound sources interact across spatial scales and through time. Variation in soundscapes may have wide-ranging ecological effects as many organisms have evolved to respond to acoustic cues from all sources. Soundscape ecologists use recording devices, audio tools, and elements of traditional ecological analyses to study soundscape structure. Increasingly soundscapes are dominated by a sub-set of anthropophony (sometimes referred to in older, more archaic terminology as "anthropogenic noise") and this type of noise pollution or disturbance has a negative impact on a wide range of organisms. The preservation of natural soundscapes is now a recognized conservation goal.
==What is soundscape ecology?==
Soundscape ecology is the bio- and geo-acoustic branch of ecology that studies acoustic signatures from whatever source within a landscape (the soundscape). 〔Krause, Bernie (August, 2015). "Voices of the Wild," Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.〕 The soundscape of a given region can be viewed as the sum of three separate sound sources: Geophony is the first sound heard on earth. Non-biological in nature, it consists of the effect of wind in trees or grasses, water flowing in a stream, waves at an ocean or lake shoreline, and movement of the earth. Biophony is a term introduced by soundscape ecologist, Bernie Krause, who in 1998, first began to express the soundscape in terms of its acoustic sources. The biophony refers to the collective acoustic signatures generated by all sound-producing organisms in a given habitat at a given moment. It includes vocalizations that are used for conspecific communication in some cases. Anthropophony is another term introduced by Bernie Krause along with colleague, Stuart Gage. It represents human sources from heavily populated urban regions usually contains information that was intentionally produced for communication with a sound receiver. 〔Krause, Bernie. (2008). "''Anatomy of the Soundscape: Evolving Perspectives''," J Aud Eng Soc. Vol 56 No 1/2 January/February.〕The expression in various combinations of these acoustic features across space and time generate unique soundscapes.
Soundscape ecologists seek to investigate the structure of soundscapes, explain how they are generated, and study how organisms interrelate acoustically. A number of hypotheses have been proposed to explain the structure of soundscapes, particularly elements of biophony. For instance, an ecological theory known as the acoustic adaptation hypothesis predicts that acoustic signals of animals are altered in different physical environments in order to maximize their propagation through the habitat.〔Krause, Bernie. (2008). "''Anatomy of the Soundscape: Evolving Perspectives''," J Aud Eng Soc. Vol 56 No 1/2 January/February.〕 〔 In addition, acoustic signals from organisms may be under selective pressure to minimize their frequency (pitch) overlap with other auditory features of the environment. This acoustic niche hypothesis〔Krause, Bernie. (1992). "The Habitat Niche Hypothesis:A Hidden Symphony of Animal Sounds," Literary Review, Fairleigh Dickinson U., 36:1, 1992, Pg. 40-45. 〕 is analogous to the classical ecological concept of niche partitioning. It suggests that acoustic signals in the environment should display frequency partitioning as a result of selection acting to maximize the effectiveness of intraspecific communication for different species.〔 Observations of frequency differentiation among insects, birds, and anurans support the acoustic niche hypothesis. 〔Krause, Bernie. (2012). "The Great Animal Orchestra: Finding the Origins of Music in the World's Wild Places," Little Brown/Hachette, New York.〕 Organisms may also partition their vocalization frequencies to avoid overlap with pervasive geophonic sounds. For example, territorial communication in some frog species takes place partially in the high frequency ultrasonic spectrum. This communication method represents an evolutionary adaptation to the frogs’ riparian habitat where running water produces constant low frequency sound. Invasive species that introduce new sounds into soundscapes can disrupt acoustic niche partitioning in native communities, a process known as biophonic invasion.〔 Although adaptation to acoustic niches may explain the frequency structure of soundscapes, spatial variation in sound is likely to be generated by environmental gradients in altitude, latitude, or habitat disturbance.〔 These gradients may alter the relative contributions of biophony, geophony, and anthrophony to the soundscape. For example, when compared with unaltered habitats, regions with high levels of urban land-use are likely to have increased levels of anthrophony and decreased physical and organismal sound sources. Soundscapes typically exhibit temporal patterns, with daily and seasonal cycles being particularly prominent.〔 These patterns are often generated by the communities of organisms that contribute to biophony. For example, birds chorus heavily at dawn and dusk while anurans call primarily at night; the timing of these vocalization events may have evolved to minimize temporal overlap with other elements of the soundscape.〔
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